Gebruiker:Haaftjlv/Schietpartijen^Algemeen

Massa schietpartijen in het algemeen

Een massa schietpartij is een incident waarbij talrijke individuen gewond raken of gedood worden als gevolg van gewelddadig van vuurwapens door een of meer andere individuen.

Er bestaat geen algemeen aanvaarde definitie voor dit gewelddadige fenomeen.

In de Verenigde Staten, vrijwel het enige land dat geteisterd wordt door een schijnbaar onstuitbare opeenvolging van massa schietpartijen, werd in een wettelijk onderzoek naar geweldsmisdrijven van 2012 de volgende definitie gegeven: een schietpartij waarbij ten minste drie doden vallen, de dader uitgezonderd.

Een andere officieuze definitie van een "massa schietpartij" is een gebeurtenis die neerkomt op het vuren ( niet noodzakelijkerwijs resulterend in de dood) op vijf, dan wel meer mensen (soms vier) zonder een afkoelingsperiode. Verwante termen zijn schoolschietpartij en moordpartij.

Een massa schietpartij kan worden uitgevoerd door individuen of organisaties op publieke of niet-publieke plaatsen. Recentelijk hebben ook terroristische groepen de tactiek van massa schietpartijen toegepast om hun politieke doelen te bereiken.

Individuen die massa schietpartijen uitvoeren kunnen in elke van een aantal categorieen vallen, waaronder moordenaars van familieleden, van collega's, van studenten en willekeurige vreemdelingen. De motieven van individuen om te schieten zijn heel gevarieerd.

Het antwoord op massa schietpartijen kent een een verschillende vormen, afhankelijk van de context: het aantal doden en gewonden, het land, het politieke klimaat en andere factoren. De media verslaan massa schietpartijen uitvoerig en soms sensationeel. Het effect van die verslaglegging is onderzocht.

Landen, zoal bij voorbeeld het Verenigd Koninkrijk en Australie hebben hun wapenwetgeving aangepast in het spoor van massa schietpartijen. In tegenstelling daarmee verbiedt de Grondwet van de Verenigde Staten wetgeving ronduit het verbieden van het bezit van vuurwapens, terwijl dezelfde V.S. de helft van alle vuurwapens op de wereld bezit..

Definities

See also: Massacre, School shooting, Spree shooting, and Mass murder

De karakterisering van een gebeurtenis als een "massa schietpartij" hangt af van definiering en definities varieren. Onder federale wetgeving kan de Algemene Aanklager een verzoek van een staat eerder assisteren in het onderzoeken van een "maasmoord" dan een "massa schietpartij". De term werd in eerste instantie gedefinieerd als de moord op vier of meer mensen zonder afkoelingsperiode. Het Congres herdefinieerde dit in 2013 als de moord op drie of meer mensen.

In "Behind the Bloodshed", a reportage door USA Today, wordt als een "massamoord" gedefinieerd, elk incident waarin vier of meer mensen worden vermoord, waaronder mensen die familie van elkaar zijn. Een website uit sociale media geciteerd door CNN, MSNBC, The New York Times, The Washington Post, The Economist, de BBC, etc., Mass Shooting Tracker, definieerde een "massa schietpartij" als elk incident waarbij vier of meer mensen worden aangeschoten, hetzij verwond hetzij gedood. Een vermeldenswaardige relatie werd in de V.S. gerapporteerd tussen "massa schietpartijen" en huiselijk of gezins geweld, met een huidige of voormalige intieme partner of familielid gedood in 76 van 133 gevallen (57%), en een dader die eerder been is aangeklaagd voor huiselijke geweld in 21 gevallen. Het ontbreken van enkelvoudige definitie kan leiden tot alarmisme in de nieuws media, waarbij in sommige reportages soorten misdaden worden vermengd.

In Australië definieerde een krant in 2006 een "massa schietpartij" als "een vuurwapens gerelateerd incident waarin meer dan vijf moorden worden gepleegd door een of twee daders in naburige gebeurtenissen in een civiele setting, zonder het aantal daders te tellen".

Crimineel Geweld-onderzoeksgroep Gun Violence Archive, waarvan het onderzoek gebruik wordt door alle vooraanstaande Amerikaanse media definieert Massa Schietpartijen als "VIER" of meer schutters en/of gedoden in een enkele gebeurtenis [incident], op dezelfde tijd en locatie, de schutter niet meegeteld", daarbij onderscheid makend "Mass Schietpartij" en "Massamoord", en zonder schutters mee te tellen als slachtoffers. .

Een handeling wordt als specifiek terroristisch gedefinieerd als deze "blijkt te zijn bedoeld" om mensen te intimideren en onder druk te zetten; een massa schietpartij is op zichzelf geen geen terroristische daad. Een Amerikaanse Onderzoeksdienst van het Congres report sloot uitdrukkelijk van haar definitie van publieke "massa schietpartijen" die incidenten waarin het geweld een middel is om een doel te bereiken, bij voorbeeld in het geval dat de schutter "crimineel voordeel najaagt of doodt in de naam van een terroristische ideologie".

By continent and region

Slachtoffers en overlevenden

After mass shootings, some survivors have written about their experiences and their experiences have been covered by journalists. A survivor of the Knoxville Unitarian Universalist church shooting wrote about his reaction to other mass shooting incidents.[39] The father of a victim in a mass shooting at a movie theater in Aurora, Colorado, wrote about witnessing other mass shootings after the loss of his son.[40] The survivors of the 2011 Norway attacks recounted their experience to GQ.[41] In addition, one paper studied Swedish police officers' reactions to a mass shooting.[42]

Survivors of mass shootings can suffer from posttraumatic stress disorder.[43][44]

Daders

See also: List of rampage killers

Notable mass shooters from outside the United States include Anders Behring Breivik (Norway, 2011), Robert Steinhauser and Tim Kretschmer (Germany, 2002 and 2009), William Unek (Africa, 1954 and 1957), Marc Lépine and Valery Fabrikant, (Canada, 1989 and 1992), Pekka-Eric Auvinen and Matti Juhani Saari (Finland, 2007 and 2008), Genildo Ferreira de França (Brazil, 1997), Friedrich Leibacher (Switzerland, 2001), Ľubomír Harman (Slovakia, 2010), Tristan van der Vlis (Netherlands, 2011), Richard Komakech (Uganda, 1994), Omar Abdul Razeq Abdullah Rifai (Egypt, 2013), Farda Gadirov (Azerbaijan, 2009), Martin Bryant (Australia, 1996), Michael Robert Ryan and Derrick Bird (England, 1987 and 2010), Thomas Hamilton (Scotland, 1996) Ljubiša Bogdanović (Serbia, 2013) and Woo Bum-kon (South Korea, 1982).

Vermeldenswaardige daders van massa schietpartijen in de V.S.

In the U.S. include Edward Charles Allaway, James Edward Pough, Carl Robert Brown, Omar Mateen, Robert A. Hawkins, James Oliver Huberty, Nathan Dunlap, George Hennard, Dylann Roof, Adam Lanza, Nidal Malik Hasan, Charles Whitman, Jeff Weise, Gang Lu, Patrick Sherrill, Barry Loukaitis, Esteban Santiago, Christopher Harper-Mercer, Gian Luigi Ferri, Mark Essex, Scott Evans Dekraai, Steven Kazmierczak, Jennifer San Marco, James Eagan Holmes, Anthony F. Barbaro, Michael McLendon, Rodrick Shonte Dantzler, Jared Lee Loughner, Seung-Hui Cho, Elliot Rodger, Charles Carl Roberts IV, Rizwan Farook and Tashfeen Malik, Robert Lewis Dear, Mitchell Johnson and Andrew Golden, Aaron Alexis, Wade Michael Page, Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold, Patrick Edward Purdy, Gavin Eugene Long, Micah Xavier Johnson, Kyle Aaron Huff, One L. Goh, Stephen Paddock, Devin Patrick Kelley, Nikolas Cruz, Dimitrios Pagourtzis, David Katz, Robert Bowers, and Ian Long. U.S. mass shooters are overwhelmingly males.[45][46][47] According to a database compiled by Mother Jones magazine, the race of the shooters is approximately proportionate to the overall U.S. population, although Asians are overrepresented and Latinos underrepresented.[47] Criminologist James Allen Fox said that most mass murderers do not have a criminal record, or involuntary incarceration at a mental health center,[48] but an article in the New York Times in December 2015 about 15 recent mass shootings found that six perpetrators had had run-ins with law enforcement, and six had mental health issues.[49]

Motieven

Mass shootings can be motivated by misanthropy[50] and terrorism and caused by mental illness, inceldom[51][52] and extensive bullying[53] among other reasons.[45] Forensic psychologist Stephen Ross says that extreme anger and the thought shooters are working for a cause, rather than mental illness, is most often the explanation.[54] A study by Vanderbilt University researchers found that "fewer than 5% of the 120,000 gun-related killings in the United States between 2001 and 2010 were perpetrated by people diagnosed with mental illness".[55] John Roman of the Urban Institute argues that, while better access to mental health care, restricting high powered weapons, and creating a defensive infrastructure to combat terrorism are constructive, they don't address the greater issue, which is "we have a lot of really angry young men in our country and in the world."[56]

Author Dave Cullen described killer Eric Harris as an "injustice collector" in his 2009 book Columbine.[57] He expanded on the concept in a 2015 New Republic essay on injustice collectors,[58] identifying several notorious killers as fitting the category, including Christopher Dorner, Elliot Rodger, Vester Flanagan, and Andrew Kehoe. Likewise, mass shooting expert and former FBI profiler Mary O'Toole also uses the phrase "injustice collector" in characterizing motives of some mass shooting perpetrators.[59] In relation, criminologist James Alan Fox contends that mass murderers are "enabled by social isolation" and typically experience "years of disappointment and failure that produce a mix of profound hopelessness and deep-seated resentment."[60][61] Jillian Peterson, an assistant professor of criminology at Hamline University who is participating in the construction of a database on mass shooters, noted that two phenomena surface repeatedly in the statistics: hopelessness and a need for notoriety in life or in death.[62] Notoriety was first suggested as a possible motive and researched by Justin Nutt. Nutt stated in a 2013 article, "those who feel nameless and as though no one will care or remember them when they are gone may feel doing something such as a school shooting will make sure they are remembered and listed in the history books."[63]

In considering the frequency of mass shootings in the United States, criminologist Peter Squires says that the individualistic culture in the United States puts the country at greater risk for mass shootings than other countries, noting that "many other countries where gun ownership is high, such as Norway, Finland, Switzerland and Israel . . . tend to have more tight-knit societies where a strong social bond supports people through crises, and mass killings are fewer." He is an advocate of gun control, but contends there is more to mass shootings than the prevalence of guns.[64]

Social science and family structure

According to Michael Cook and Carolyn Moynihan of Mercatornet,[65] an angle that is missed by mainstream media is the findings of important social scientists such as eminent Harvard sociologist Robert J. Sampson who wrote: “Family structure is one of the strongest, if not the strongest, predictor of variations in urban violence across cities in the United States. The close empirical connection between family breakdown and crime suggests that increased spending on crime-fighting, imprisonment, and criminal justice in the United States over the last 40 years is largely the direct or indirect consequence of marital breakdown.” His views are echoed by the eminent criminologists Michael Gottfredson and Travis Hirschi, who have written that “such family measures as the percentage of the population divorced, the percentage of households headed by women, and the percentage of unattached individuals in the community are among the most powerful predictors of crime rates.”[66]

Based on the research of another social scientist who was himself raised by a single mother, Bradford Wilcox, "boys living in single mother homes are almost twice as likely to end up delinquent compared to boys who enjoy good relationships with their father."[66]

Moynihan said that "almost all school shooters come from families where the parents are either divorced or alienated",[65] and Cook argued that "perhaps they wouldn’t need more gun control if they had better divorce control.”[67]

Responses

Media [icon] This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (November 2017) Some people have considered whether media attention revolving around the perpetrators of mass shootings is a factor in sparking further incidents.[68] In response to this, some in law enforcement have decided against naming mass shooting suspects in media-related events to avoid giving them notoriety.[69]

The effects of messages used in the coverage of mass shootings has been studied. Researchers studied the role the coverage plays in shaping attitudes toward persons with serious mental illness and public support for gun control policies.[70]

In 2015 a paper written by a physicist and statistician, Sherry Towers, along with four colleagues was published, which proved that there is indeed mass shooting contagion using mathematical modeling.[71] However in 2017 Towers said in an interview that she prefers self-regulation to censorship to address this issue, just like years ago major news outlets successfully prevent copycat suicide.[72]

In 2016 the American Psychological Association published a press release, claiming that mass shooting contagion does exist and news media and social media enthusiasts should withhold the name(s) and face(s) of the victimizer(s) when reporting a mass shooting to deny the fame the shooter(s) want to curb contagion.[73]

Some news media have weighed in on the gun control debate. After the 2015 San Bernardino attack, the New York Daily News' front-page headline, "God isn't fixing this", was accompanied by "images of tweets from leading Republicans who shared their 'thoughts' and 'prayers' for the shooting victims".[74][75] Since the 2014 Isla Vista killings, satirical news website The Onion has republished the story "'No Way To Prevent This', Says Only Nation Where This Regularly Happens" with minor edits after major mass shootings, to satirise the popular consensus that there is a lack of political power in the United States to prevent mass shootings.[76]

Hervorming wapenwetgeving

See also: Overview of gun laws by nation

Responses to mass shootings take a variety of forms, depending on the country and political climate.

Australia After the 1996 Port Arthur massacre in Australia, the government changed gun laws in Australia. As in the United States, figures vary according to the definition of "mass shooting"; a 2006 paper used a definition "one in which ⩾5 firearm‐related homicides are committed by one or two perpetrators in proximate events in a civilian setting, not counting any perpetrators",[22] compared to the usual U.S. definition of an indiscriminate rampage in public places resulting in four or more victims killed. Between 1981 and the passing of the law in 1996 there were 13 mass shootings with five or more deaths; in the following decade, while the new law was in place, there were no such mass shootings.[22] Overall gun deaths have continued to decline for two decades since the law was passed,[77], however there have been several shootings with three or more deaths since 1996 where the victims were related to the shooter.

There were five significant shootings, though not meeting the "mass shooting" definition of the 2006 paper, between 1996 and June 2018:

the Monash University shooting in 2002 in which Huan Yun Xiang shot and killed two and injured five the Hectorville Siege in 2011 where 39-year-old man Donato Anthony Corbo shot four people on a neighbouring property (three of whom died), and also wounded two police officers, before being arrested by Special Operations police after an eight-hour siege the Logan family shooting in 2014 of a neighbour family (Greg Holmes, 48, his mother Mary Lockhart, 75, and her husband Peter Lockhart, 78) by Ian Francis Jamieson the Hunt family murders, in October 2014 when Geoff Hunt murdered four relatives before killing himself The Osmington shooting in May 2018, involving the death of 7 when a grandfather shot and killed his four grandchildren, his daughter, his wife and then himself. United Kingdom As a result of the 1987 Hungerford massacre and 1996 Dunblane school massacre mass shootings, the United Kingdom enacted tough gun laws and a buyback program to remove guns from private ownership.[78] There has been one mass shooting since the laws were restricted, the Cumbria shootings in 2010 which killed 13 people.[77]

Verenigde Staten

See also: Gun law in the United States, Gun laws in the United States by state, and Gun politics in the United States

In the United States, support for gun law reform varies considerably by political party, with Democrats generally more supportive and Republicans generally more opposed. Some in the U.S. believe that tightening gun laws would prevent future mass shootings.[79] Some politicians in the U.S. introduced legislation to reform the background check system for purchasing a gun.[80] A vast majority of Americans support tighter background checks. "According to a poll [Made by CNN] by Quinnipiac University in Connecticut, 93 percent of registered voters said they would support universal background checks for all gun buyers."[81]

Others contend that mass shootings should not be the main focus in the gun law reform debate because these shootings account for less than one percent of the U.S. homicide rate and believe that these shootings are hard to stop. They often argue that civilians with concealed guns will be able to stop shootings.[82]

Gun control policies may cause a lot of controversy due to divided opinions on who should be able to carry a weapon. An opinion survey was conducted by the firm GfK Knowledge Networks to differentiate between the different attitudes towards gun control. There was a gun policy survey and a mental illness survey. Studies showed that over 85% of those questioned supported national background checks into the mental health records of citizens attempting to purchase a gun. More than 50% of people felt that those suffering with mental health issues were more deviant and threatening than those who had good mental health. The study also proved that there is large interest in contributing to mental health awareness as well as simply prohibiting those suffering from purchasing guns. Nearly two thirds of respondents supported greater government spending on mental health, with more than 60% of people believing this would reduce gun violence in the USA. (Colleen L. Barry, 2013)

Leiders

As of June 2016, U.S. President Barack Obama had spoken in the aftermath of fourteen mass shootings during his nearly eight-year presidency, repeatedly calling for more gun safety laws in the United States.[83] After the Charleston church shooting, U.S. President Barack Obama said, "At some point, we as a country will have to reckon with the fact that this type of mass violence does not happen in other advanced countries. It doesn't happen in other places with this kind of frequency."[84] After the December 2015 San Bernardino attack, Obama renewed his call for reforming gun-safety laws and also said that the frequency of mass shootings in the United States has "no parallel in the world".[85]

Na de massa schietpartij in februari 2018 op de Stoneman Douglas High School in Parkland (Florida), werden de overlevende studenten, de leerkrachten en de ouders van de school krachtige leiders in het streven om de verkoop van aanvalswapens en de gemakkelijke verkrijgbaarheid van militaire wapens te verbieden.

Op 20 november 2018 werden de jonge actievoerende studenten, die de internationale beweging March For Our Lives oprichtten na de dodelijke schietpartij in Kaapstad Zuid Afrika onderscheiden met de Internationale Kinder Vredes Prijs.

De prijs werd uitgereikt door aartsbisschop Desmond Tutu tijdens een ceremoniele plechtigheid. Hij noemde de beweging een van de meest veelbetekenende, door jongeren geleide massabewegingen sinds mensenheugenis en de oprichters waren volgens hem "ware makers van verschil". .