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Boomholte (en)

Een huismus (Passer domesticus) voedt haar jong in een boomholte.

Een boomholte is een

A naturally formed tree hollow at the base of the tree.

A tree hollow or tree hole is a semi-enclosed cavity which has naturally formed in the trunk or branch of a tree. These are predominantly found in old trees, whether living or not. Hollows form in many species of trees, and are a prominent feature of natural forests and woodlands, and act as a resource or habitat for a number of vertebrate and invertebrate animals.

Hollows may form as the result of physiological stress from natural forces causing the excavating and exposure of the heartwood. Forces including wind, fire, heat, lightning, rain, attack from insects (such as termites or beetles), bacteria, or fungi. Also, trees may self-prune, dropping lower branches as they reach maturity, exposing the area where the branch was attached. Many animals further develop the hollows using instruments such as their beak, teeth or claws.

The size of hollows may depend on the age of the tree. For example, eucalypts develop hollows at all ages, but only from when the trees are 120 years old do they form hollows suitable for vertebrates, and it may take 220 years for hollows suitable for larger species to form.

Hollows in fallen timber are also very important for animals such as echidnas, numbats, chuditch and many reptiles. In streams, hollow logs may be important to aquatic animals for shelter and egg attachment.

Hollows are an important habitat for many wildlife species, especially where the use of hollows is obligate, as this means no other resource would be a feasible substitute. Animals may use hollows as diurnal or nocturnal shelter sites, as well as for rearing young, feeding, thermoregulation, and to facilitate ranging behaviour and dispersal. While use may also be opportunistic, rather than obligate, it may be difficult to determine the nature of a species' relationship to hollows—it may vary across a species' range, or depend on climatic conditions.

Animals will select a hollow based on factors including entrance size and shape, depth, and degree of insulation. Such factors greatly affect the frequency and seasonality of hollow use.

Especially in Europe, entomologists are interested in the use of hollows by invertebrates. One beetle associated with hollow trees, Osmoderma eremita, has been given the highest priority according to the European Union's Habitat Directive.

Description

A tree hollow is a cavity in a living tree. Tree holes can be caused when an injury to the tree, such as breakage of a limb, creates an opening through the bark and exposes the sapwood. The sapwood is attacked by fungi and bacteria, which form a cavity in the bole of the tree. The resulting cavity can fill with water, thus becoming a type of phytotelma. Therefore, there are wet and dry tree holes. Tree holes are important habitats for many animals, such as Ceratopogonidae, Chironomidae, the Common Merganser, toucans, woodpeckers, and bluebirds. Tree holes can be important in the maintenance and spread of some diseases, for example La Crosse encephalitis.

Artificial hollows

Animals have been found to use artificial structures as substitutes for hollows. For example pygmy possums in the chute of a grain silo; or pardalotes in the top, horizontal pipe of a children's swing. Purpose built nest boxes, such as birdhouses and bat tubes, are also constructed for conservation and for wildlife observation. The size of the nest box, entry hole and placement height may be chosen in consideration of certain species. Natural hollows are still generally preferred for habitat conservation.

Around the world

Conservation of hollow-using fauna is an issue in many parts of the world. In North America, recovery of the Eastern Bluebird (Sialia sialis) has required nest boxes due to the loss of natural hollows. The scarcity of dead, hollow-bearing trees in Scandinavian forests is a key threatening process to native bird life. In Sweden, almost half of red-listed species are dependent on dead hollow-bearing trees or logs.

Australia

In Australia, 304 vertebrate species are known to use tree hollows in Australia: 29 amphibians, 78 reptiles, 111 birds, 86 mammals. Approximately 100 of these are now rare, threatened or near-threatened on Australian State or Commonwealth legislation, in part because of the removal of hollow-bearing trees.

Threats to hollows include: native forest silviculture, firewood collection, rural dieback (such as from inundation and salinity), grazing by cattle, and land clearing. Additionally, pest and introduced species such as the Common Myna and Western honey bee (Apis mellifera) compete with native species for hollows; domestic and feral cats and black rats prey on hollow-using animals and have been damaging especially to island populations; and some native hollow-using species have increased population densities or expanded their ranges since European settlement, such as the Galah, Common Brushtail Possum and the Little Corella and compete with less common native species.

Russia, China, Korea

Asian Black Bears, also known as Himalayan bears (Lat.: Ursus thibetanus), in northern parts of their range, such as Russian province Primorye, China, and both Koreas, prefer spend winter periods in large tree hollows, where females also give birth to cubs. Threats include massive deforestation in these countries, combined with direct poaching of wintering bears—with selective destruction of the best hollow trees. In Russia, attempts (sometimes successful) are made to restore such broken trees. Unfortunately, only a small portion of all damaged trees can be restored in Primorye, where forests are basically logged without taking to account needs of large fauna.

• 
  A River Red Gum, with hollows. The younger trees surrounding it would generally not yet have developed hollows suitable for vertebrate species.
• 
  Hollows excavated by the Lesser Spotted Woodpecker (Picoides minor). Also fungus, which may also help in the formation of hollows through the decomposition of heartwood.

External links

• Life in a Tree Hole. Nature Bulletin No. 581. November 21, 1959. Forest Preserve District of Cook County
• Research - Tree holes / Phytotelmata

Mediabestanden

Zie de categorie Boomholten van Wikimedia Commons voor mediabestanden over dit onderwerp.

Siloamtunnel (en)

Siloamtunnel
Datering	eind 8e en begin 7e eeuw v.Chr..
Archeologische informatie
Vindplaats	Jeruzalem, Israël / Palestina
Jaar	1625
Ontdekker	Franciscus Quaresmius
Portaal    Archeologie

De Siloamtunnel (נִקְבַּת השילוח, Nikbat HaShiloah), ook wel de Hizkiatunnel genoemd, is een tunnel dat in de oudheid onder Jeruzalem was gegraven. Mogelijk is de tunnel door de Judeese koning Hizkia gegraven omstreeks het einde van de 8e en het begin van de 7e eeuw v.Chr.

Beschrijving

Bestand:Siloam93.jpg

Tracé

Volgens het verslag in de Bijbel voorzag koning Hizkia de belegering van Jeruzalem door de Assyriërs en blokkeerde daarom de "bovenste bron van de wateren van Gihon", waarop hij het water naar het westen van de stad geleidde. Op deze was Jeruzalem verzekert van vers water, in tegenstelling tot het Assyrisch leger.

http://wol.jw.org/nl/wol/d/r18/lp-o/2009333#h=4:0-7:682

1884 sketch of the tunnel, by Charles Warren and Claude Reignier Conder, showing the tunnel as well as Warren's Shaft, the Pool of Siloam and the Fountain of the Virgin.

Support for the dating to Hezekiah's period is derived from to the written inscription found on its wall (Siloam Inscription) about 19 feet in from the Pool of Siloam, and to radiocarbon dates of organic matter contained in the original plastering. However, the dates were challenged in 2011 by new excavations that suggested an origin in the late 9th or early 8th century BCE.

The tunnel, leading from the Gihon Spring to the Pool of Siloam, was designed as an aqueduct to provide Jerusalem with water during an impending siege by the Assyrians, led by Sennacherib. The curving tunnel is 533 m long, and by using a 30 cm (0.6‰) gradient altitude difference between each end, conveyed water along its length from the spring to the pool.

According to the Siloam inscription, the tunnel was excavated by two teams, one starting at each end of the tunnel and then meeting in the middle. The inscription is partly unreadable at present, and may originally have conveyed more information than this. It is clear from the tunnel itself that several directional errors were made during its construction. Recent scholarship has discredited the idea that the tunnel may have been formed by substantially widening a pre-existing natural karst.

The difficult feat of making two teams digging from opposite ends meet far underground is now understood to have been accomplished by directing the two teams from above using sounds generated by hammering on the solid karst through which the tunnelers were digging.

Function and origin

Siloam Inscription

The ancient city of Jerusalem, being on a mountain, is naturally defensible from almost all sides, but suffers from the drawback that its major source of fresh water, the Gihon spring, is on the side of the cliff overlooking the Kidron Valley. This presents a major military weakness as the city walls, if high enough to be defensible, must necessarily leave the Gihon spring outside, thus leaving the city without a fresh water supply in case of siege.

The Bible says that King Hezekiah (c. 8th century BC), fearful that the Assyrians would lay siege to the city, blocked the spring's water outside the city and diverted it through a channel into the then Pool of Siloam. However, it is now known (as of 1997) that the earlier Warren's shaft system had already heavily fortified the Gihon Spring; Warren's shaft is not an aqueduct, and requires those desiring water to travel up and down it themselves - an arrangement that Hezekiah seemingly must have considered inadequate.

In 1899, an ancient channel, also leading from the Gihon Spring to the Siloam Pool area, but by a more direct route, was found. This channel is now known as the Middle Bronze Age channel, on account of its estimated age. Ronny Reich determined that it was constructed around 1800 BC (in the Middle Bronze Age), and thus that the spring's water had already been diverted many centuries before Hezekiah. As originally constructed, it is understood as a 20 feet deep ditch in the ground, covered over by large rock slabs (which were then hidden in the foliage). It is narrower than the tunnel, but can still be walked by a human for most of its length. In addition to the (3 ft high) exit near the Siloam pool, the channel has several small outlets that watered the gardens facing the Kidron Valley. Hezekiah's tunnel was constructed to replace this channel, since a besieging army could fairly easily have discovered and destroyed the Middle Bronze Age Channel.

The Bible verses relating to Hezekiah's tunnel are these:

"As for the other events of Hezekiah’s reign, all his achievements and how he made the pool and the tunnel by which he brought water into the city, are they not written in the book of the annals of the kings of Judah?" 2 Kings 20:20

"When Hezekiah saw that Sennacherib had come and that he intended to wage war against Jerusalem, he consulted with his officials and military staff about blocking off the water from the springs outside the city, and they helped him. They gathered a large group of people who blocked all the springs and the stream that flowed through the land. 'Why should the kings of Assyria come and find plenty of water?' they said." 2 Chronicles 32:2-4

"It was Hezekiah who blocked the upper outlet of the Gihon spring and channeled the water down to the west side of the City of David. He succeeded in everything he undertook." 2 Chronicles 32:30

"You also saw the City of David, that it was great; And you gathered together the waters of the lower pool. You also made a reservoir between the two walls for the water of the old pool. But you did not look to its Maker, Nor did you have respect for him who fashioned it long ago" - Isaiah 22:11

Doubts over dating

Excavation work in the tunnel by Ronny Reich of the University of Haifa and Eli Shukron of the Israel Antiquities Authority has cast doubt over the attribution of the tunnel to the reign of Hezekiah. They believe the evidence points to a date several decades earlier, in the last part of the 9th century or early part of the 8th century. They note that the biblical passage connecting Hezekiah to the construction of waterworks doesn't specify a place in the city, and suggest it might refer to waterworks in the Mamilla area.

The revised dating is supported by De Groot and Fadida on the basis of pottery analysis.

Ontdekking

Hezekiah's tunnel 2010

The tunnel was first described in modern times by Franciscus Quaresmius in 1625. It was later explored in 1838 by the American biblical scholar Edward Robinson, and in 1865 by Charles Warren. Neither Quaresmius nor Robinson identified the tunnel with Hezekiah, but in 1871 Warren suggested that the Pool of Siloam may have been "dug by King Hezekiah" and in 1884 wrote of the Siloam inscription that: "The inscription thus appears to belong to the later period of the Hebrew monarchy, and may very well be considered to agree with the Biblical account of Hezekiah's preparations for Sennacherib's siege"

Vijver van Siloam

See also

• en:List of artifacts significant to the Bible
• en:Siloam inscription
• en:Tunnel of Eupalinos, 6th century BC tunnel on Samos, Greece
• en:Warren's Shaft
• en:Fountain of the Virgin

References

• Brisco, Thomas C. (1998). Holman Bible Atlas. Broadman & Holman Publishers, Nashville. ISBN 1-55819-709-5.
• Frumkin, Amos, Shimron, Aryeh (2006). Tunnel engineering in the Iron Age: Geoarchaeology of the Siloam Tunnel, Jerusalem. Journal of Archaeological Science 33 (2): 227–237. DOI: 10.1016/j.jas.2005.07.018.
• Conrad Schick, Phoenician Inscription in the Pool of Siloam, Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement, 1880, pp. 238–39.
• Archibald Sayce
  • "The Inscription at the Pool of Siloam," Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement 13.2 (April 1881): 69-73 (editio princeps)
  • "The Ancient Hebrew Inscription Discovered at the Pool of Siloam in Jerusalem," Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement 13.3 (July 1881): 141-154.
• H. B. Waterman, The Siloam Inscription, The Hebrew Student, Vol. 1, No. 3 (Jun., 1882), pp. 52-53, Published by: The University of Chicago Press
• Archibald Sayce, Claude Reignier Conder, Isaac Taylor (1829–1901), Samuel Beswick (1822-1903) & Henry Sulley (1845-1940), "The Ancient Hebrew Inscription Discovered at the Pool of Siloam," Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement 13.4 (Oct. 1881): 282-297.
• Claude Reignier Conder, The Siloam Tunnel, Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement, 1882, pp.122–31.
• Hermann Guthe, “Das Schicksal der Siloah-Inschrift” ZDPV, 1890.
• David Ussishkin, The Original Length of the Siloam Tunnel in Jerusalem , Levant 8, 1976, pp. 82-95
• E. Puech, L'inscription du tunnel de Siloie, RB 81, 1974, pp.196-214
• Rogerson, J., Davies, P. R., Was the Siloam Tunnel Built by Hezekiah?, Biblical Archaeologist 59, 1996, pp. 138–49.
• Rosenberg, S., The Siloam Tunnel Revisited, Tel Aviv 25, 1998, pp. 116–30.
• Frumkin, A., Shimron, A., and Rosenbaum, J., Radiometric Dating of the Siloam Tunnel, Nature 425, Jerusalem, 2003, pp. 169–71.
• Amihai Sneh, Ram Weinberger, Eyal Shalev, The Why, How, and When of the Siloam Tunnel Reevaluated, Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 359, August 2010, pp. 57-65
• Ronald S. Hendel, The Date of the Siloam Inscription: A Rejoinder to Rogerson and Davies, Biblical Archaeologist, 1996, vol.59
• Shlomo Guil A New Perspective on the Various Components of the Siloam Water System in Jerusalem

External links

• The Siloam TunnelAqueduct in the Jewish Encyclopedia
• Hezekiah's tunnel BiblePlaces.com article containing photos & links
• A Tiny Piece of the Puzzle: Six-Letter Inscription Suggests Monumental Building of Hezekiah Biblical Archaeology Review
• City of David City of David archeological site
• {{Youtube|boC7lOV-1PU|Christian video of the tunnel}}
• Hezekiah’s Tunnel: Living proof of God’s greatness

Mediabestanden

Zie de categorie Hezekiah's Tunnel van Wikimedia Commons voor mediabestanden over dit onderwerp.

Checken:

• Vijver van Siloam
• Hizkia

redirects:

• Hizkia-tunnel
• Hizkia's tunnel
• Tunnel van Siloam

etc.

Siloaminscriptie (en)

Siloaminscriptie
Datering	eind 8e en begin 7e eeuw v.Chr..
Archeologische informatie
Vindplaats	Jeruzalem, Israël / Palestina
Jaar	1880
Collectie	Archeologisch museum van Istanboel
ID	2195 T
Portaal    Archeologie

De Siloaminscriptie (כתובת השילוח) of Silwaninscriptie is een inscriptie gevonden in de Siloamtunnel, gelegen onder Jeruzalem.

As displayed at the Istanbul Archaeology Museums

Copy of the inscription in Hezekiah's Tunnel, 2010

The Shiloah (Siloam) inscription (כתובת השילוח) or Silwan inscription is a passage of inscribed text found in the Hezekiah tunnel which brings water from the Gihon Spring to the Pool of Siloam, located in the City of David in East Jerusalem neighborhood of Shiloah or "Silwan". The inscription records the construction of the tunnel in the 8th century BCE. It is among the oldest extant records of its kind written in Hebrew using the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet, and its association with the tunnel provides evidence for the ancient Biblical narrative.

History

The tunnel was discovered in 1838 by Edward Robinson. Despite Hezekiah's tunnel being examined extensively during the 19th century by Robinson, Charles Wilson, and Charles Warren, they all missed discovering the inscription, probably due to the accumulated mineral deposits making it barely noticeable. According to Easton's Bible Dictionary, in 1880 a youth (Jacob Eliahu, later Jacob Spafford) wading up Hezekiah's tunnel from the Siloam Pool end discovered the inscription cut in the rock on the eastern side, about 19 feet into the tunnel. The inscription was surreptitiously cut from the wall of the tunnel in 1891 and broken into fragments which were recovered through the efforts of the British Consul in Jerusalem and placed in the Istanbul Archaeology Museum.

The ancient city of Jerusalem, being on a mountain, was naturally defensible from almost all sides but its major source of fresh water, the Gihon spring, was on the side of the cliff overlooking the Kidron valley. The Bible records that King Hezekiah, fearful that the Assyrians would lay siege to the city, blocked the spring's water outside the city and diverted it through a channel into the Pool of Siloam.

Biblical references

2 Kings 20, 20: “And the rest of the events of Hezekiah and all his mighty deeds, and how he made the conduit and the pool, and he brought the water into the city, they are written in the book of the chronicles of the kings of Judah.”

2 Chronicles 32, 3-4: “And he took counsel with his officers and his mighty men to stop up the waters of the fountains that were outside the city, and they assisted him. And a large multitude gathered and stopped up all the fountains and the stream that flowed in the midst of the land, saying, "Why should the kings of Assyria come and find much water?""

Translation

As the inscription was unreadable at first due to the deposits, Professor Archibald Sayce was the first to make a tentative reading, and later the text was cleaned with an acid solution making the reading more legible. The inscription contains 6 lines, of which the first is damaged. The words are separated by dots. Only the word zada on the third line is of doubtful translation - perhaps a crack or a weak part.

The passage reads:

... the tunnel ... and this is the story of the tunnel while ...

the axes were against each other and while three cubits were left to cut? ... the voice of a man ...

called to his counterpart, (for) there was ZADA in the rock, on the right ... and on the day of the

tunnel (being finished) the stonecutters struck each man towards his counterpart, ax against ax and flowed

water from the source to the pool for 1200 cubits. and 100?

cubits was the height over the head of the stonecutters ...

The inscription hence records the construction of the tunnel; according to the text the work began at both ends simultaneously and proceeded until the stonecutters met in the middle. However, this idealised account does not quite reflect the reality of the tunnel; where the two sides meet is an abrupt right angled join, and the centres do not line up. It has been theorized that Hezekiah’s engineers depended on acoustic sounding to guide the tunnelers and this is supported by the explicit use of this technique as described in the Siloam Inscription. The frequently ignored final sentence of this inscription provides further evidence: “And the height of the rock above the heads of the laborers was 100 cubits.” This indicates that the engineers were well aware of the distance to the surface above the tunnel at various points in its progression.

While traditionally identified as a commemorative inscription, one archaeologist has suggested that it may be a votive offering inscription.

Property rights

In 2007, Jerusalem Mayor Uri Lupolianski met with Turkey's ambassador to Israel, Namik Tan, and requested that the tablet be returned to Jerusalem as a "goodwill gesture." Turkey rejected the request, stating that the Siloam inscription was Imperial Ottoman property, and thus the cultural property of the Turkish Republic. President Abdullah Gul said that Turkey would arrange for the inscription to be shown in Jerusalem for a short period.

See also

• List of artifacts significant to the Bible
• Archaeology of Israel
• Biblical archaeology
• Shebna Inscription

External links

{{commons cat|Siloam Inscription|Siloam inscription}}

• A clearer photo of the inscription
• Siloam Inscription - Transcription and Vocalization
• A ligature in the inscription
• Jewish Encyclopedia: Siloam Inscription with image
• Catholic Encyclopedia: Siloe

Mediabestanden

Zie de categorie Siloam Inscription van Wikimedia Commons voor mediabestanden over dit onderwerp.