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Beginnetje Biometrie

Aan de hand van de Engelstalige!

Het JARVIK-7 kunsthart, een voorbeeld van de toepassing van biometrie met biomateriaalen voor cardiothoracale cirurgie.

Biometrie is de toepassing van techniek in het medische veld. Het betreft hier vooral het meten aan de mens (bio = de biologie en metrie = het meten). Het combineerd de ontwerp en probleemoplossende vaardigheden van de techniek met de medische en biologische wetenschap om zo de patienten zorg en de kwaliteit van leven van gezonde individuen te verbeteren.

Omdat biometrie een relatief nieuwe discipline is, bestaat veel werk van de biometrist uit onderzoek en ontwikkeling. Het omvat een verschillende velden: bioinformatica, medische beeldvorming, beeldbewerking, signaal bewerking, biomechanica, biomateriaal en biomedische technologie, systeem analyse, etc. Voorbeelden van concrete voorbeelden van de toepassing van biometrie zijn de ontwikkeling en productie van protheses, diagnostische apparatuur en beeldvormende technieken zoals MRI en CT maar ook farmaceutische medicijnen.

Disciplines in de biometrie

Biomedische versterker schematisch weergegeven, gebruikt voor het registreren van laag-voltage biologische signalen, een voorbeeld van een biometrische toepassing van elektrotechniek in de elektrofysiologie.

Biometrie wordt wijd beschouwd als een interdisciplinair gebied, waardoor er een breed spectrum van disciplines ontstaat die beinvloed worden. Door de extreme diversiteit is het niet atypisch voor een biometrist om zicht te concentreren op een bepaald aspect. Er zijn verschillende indelingen binnen de biometrie, een voorbeeld van een lijst is hieronder weergegeven:

• Bioenergetica en EEG
• Beeldvormende onderzoeken
• Biomateriaal
• Biomechanica
• Medische fysica
• Medische microbiologie
• Medische biologie
• Ecg

In andere gevallen kan biometrie ook nog opgedeeld worden op de basis waar het het meest geassocieerd wordt, meer gebaseerd op de techniek, waaronder:

Borstimplantaat, een voorbeeld van een biometrische toepassing van biomateriaal voor plastische chirurgie.

• Biochemie

• Chemical engineering - often associated with biochemical, cellular, molecular and tissue engineering, biomaterials, and biotransport.
• Electrical engineering - often associated with bioelectrical and neural engineering, bioinstrumentation, biomedical imaging, and medical devices.
• Mechanical engineering - often associated with biomechanics, biotransport, medical devices, and modeling of biological systems.
• Optics and Optical engineering - biomedical optics, imaging and medical devices.

Clinical engineering

Zie Clinical engineering voor het hoofdartikel over dit onderwerp.

Clinical engineering is a branch of biomedical engineering for professionals responsible for the management of medical equipment in a hospital. The tasks of a clinical engineer are typically the acquisition and management of medical device inventory, supervising biomedical engineering technicians (BMETs), ensuring that safety and regulatory issues are taken into consideration and serving as a technological consultant for any issues in a hospital where medical devices are concerned. Clinical engineers work closely with the IT department and medical physicists.

Schematic representation of normal ECG trace showing sinus rhythm, an example of a biomedical engineering application of electronic engineering to electrophysiology and medical diagnosis.

A typical biomedical engineering department does the corrective and preventive maintenance on the medical devices used by the hospital, except for those covered by a warranty or maintenance agreement with an external company. All newly acquired equipment is also fully tested. That is, every line of software is executed, or every possible setting is exercised and verified. Most devices are intentionally simplified in some way to make the testing process less expensive, yet accurate. Many biomedical devices need to be sterilized. This creates a unique set of problems, since most sterilization techniques can cause damage to machinery and materials. Most medical devices are either inherently safe, or have added devices and systems so that they can sense their failure and shut down into an unusable, thus very safe state. A typical, basic requirement is that no single failure should cause the therapy to become unsafe at any point during its life-cycle. See safety engineering for a discussion of the procedures used to design safe systems.

Medical devices

Zie Medical devices en medical equipment voor de hoofdartikelen over dit onderwerp.

A medical device is intended for use in:

• the diagnosis of disease or other conditions, or
• in the cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease,
• intended to affect the structure or any function of the body of man or other animals, and which does not achieve any of its primary intended purposes through chemical action and which is not dependent upon being metabolized for the achievement of any of its primary intended purposes.

A pump for continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion, an example of a biomedical engineering application of electrical engineering to medical equipment.

Some examples include pacemakers, infusion pumps, the heart-lung machine, dialysis machines, artificial organs, implants, artificial limbs, corrective lenses, cochlear implants, ocular prosthetics, facial prosthetics, somato prosthetics, and dental implants.

Stereolithography is a practical example on how medical modeling can be used to create physical objects. Beyond modeling organs and the human body, emerging engineering techniques are also currently used in the research and development of new devices for innovative therapies, treatments, patient monitoring, and early diagnosis of complex diseases.

Medical devices can be regulated and classified (in the US) as shown below:

1. Class I devices present minimal potential for harm to the user and are often simpler in design than Class II or Class III devices. Devices in this category include tongue depressors, bedpans, elastic bandages, examination gloves, and hand-held surgical instruments and other similar types of common equipment.
2. Class II devices are subject to special controls in addition to the general controls of Class I devices. Special controls may include special labeling requirements, mandatory performance standards, and postmarket surveillance. Devices in this class are typically non-invasive and include x-ray machines, PACS, powered wheelchairs, infusion pumps, and surgical drapes.
3. Class III devices require premarket approval, a scientific review to ensure the device's safety and effectiveness, in addition to the general controls of Class I. Examples include replacement heart valves, silicone gel-filled breast implants, implanted cerebellar stimulators, implantable pacemaker pulse generators and endosseous (intra-bone) implants.

Medical imaging

Zie Medical imaging voor het hoofdartikel over dit onderwerp.

An MRI scan of a human head, an example of a biomedical engineering application of electrical engineering to diagnostic imaging. Click here to view an animated sequence of slices.

Imaging technologies are often essential to medical diagnosis, and are typically the most complex equipment found in a hospital including:

• Fluoroscopy
• Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
• Nuclear Medicine
• Positron Emission Tomography (PET) PET scansPET-CT scans
• Projection Radiography such as X-rays and CT scans
• Tomography
• Ultrasound
• Electron Microscopy

Tissue engineering

Zie Tissue engineering voor het hoofdartikel over dit onderwerp.

One of the goals of tissue engineering is to create artificial organs for patients that need organ transplants. Biomedical engineers are currently researching methods of creating such organs. In one case bladders have been grown in lab and transplanted successfully into patients. Bioartificial organs, which utilize both synthetic and biological components, are also a focus area in research, such as with hepatic assist devices that utilize liver cells within an artificial bioreactor construct.

Regulatory issues

Artificial limbs: The right arm is an example of a prosthesis, and the left arm is an example of myoelectric control.

Regulatory issues are never far from the mind of a biomedical engineer. To satisfy safety regulations, most biomedical systems must have documentation to show that they were managed, designed, built, tested, delivered, and used according to a planned, approved process. This is thought to increase the quality and safety of diagnostics and therapies by reducing the likelihood that needed steps can be accidentally omitted again.

In the United States, biomedical engineers may operate under two different regulatory frameworks. Clinical devices and technologies are generally governed by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in a similar fashion to pharmaceuticals. Biomedical engineers may also develop devices and technologies for consumer use, such as physical therapy devices, which may be governed by the Consumer Product Safety Commission. See US FDA 510(k) documentation process for the US government registry of biomedical devices.

Implants, such as artificial hip joints, are generally extensively regulated due to the invasive nature of such devices.

Other countries typically have their own mechanisms for regulation. In Europe, for example, the actual decision about whether a device is suitable is made by the prescribing doctor, and the regulations are to assure that the device operates as expected. Thus in Europe, the governments license certifying agencies, which are for-profit. Technical committees of leading engineers write recommendations which incorporate public comments and are adopted as regulations by the European Union. These recommendations vary by the type of device, and specify tests for safety and efficacy. Once a prototype has passed the tests at a certification lab, and that model is being constructed under the control of a certified quality system, the device is entitled to bear a CE mark, indicating that the device is believed to be safe and reliable when used as directed.

The different regulatory arrangements sometimes result in technologies being developed first for either the U.S. or in Europe depending on the more favorable form of regulation. Most safety-certification systems give equivalent results when applied diligently. Frequently, once one such system is satisfied, satisfying the other requires only paperwork.

Biomedical engineering training

Education

[[Bestand:Prosthetic eye.png|thumb|A [[prosthetic eye]], an example of a biomedical engineering application of [[mechanical engineering]] and [[biocompatible material]]s to [[opthalmology]].]] Biomedical engineers combine sound knowledge of engineering and biological science, and therefore tend to have a bachelors of science and advanced degrees from major universities, who are now improving their biomedical engineering curriculum because interest in the field is increasing. Many colleges of engineering now have a biomedical engineering program or department from the undergraduate to the doctoral level. Traditionally, biomedical engineering has been an interdisciplinary field to specialize in after completing an undergraduate degree in a more traditional discipline of engineering or science, the reason for this being the requirement for biomedical engineers to be equally knowledgeable in engineering and the biological sciences. However, undergraduate programs of study combining these two fields of knowledge are becoming more widespread, including programs for a Bachelor of Science in Biomedical Engineering. As such, many students also pursue an undergraduate degree in biomedical engineering as a foundation for a continuing education in medical school. Though the number of biomedical engineers is currently low (as of 2004, under 10,000 in the U.S.), the number is expected to rise as modern medicine and technology improves.

In the U.S., an increasing number of undergraduate programs are also becoming recognized by ABET as accredited bioengineering/biomedical engineering programs. Over 40 programs are currently accredited by ABET, the first being Duke University, originally accredited by the Engineering Council for Profession Development (now ABET) in September of 1972.

As with many degrees, the reputation and ranking of a program may factor into the desirability of a degree holder for either employment or graduate admission. The reputation of many undergraduate degrees are also linked to the institution's graduate or research programs, which have some tangible factors for rating, such as research funding and volume, publications and citations.

Graduate education is also an important aspect in BME. Although many engineering professions do not require graduate level training, BME professions often recommend or require them. Since many BME professions often involve scientific research, such as in the pharmaceutical and medical device industries, graduate education may be highly desirable as undergraduate degrees typically do not provide substantial research training and experience.

Graduate programs in BME, like in other scientific fields, are highly varied and particular programs may emphasize certain aspects within the field. They may also feature extensive collaborative efforts with programs in other fields, owing again to the interdisciplinary nature of BME.

Education in BME also varies greatly around the world. By virtue of its extensive biotechnology sector, numerous major universities, and few internal barriers, the U.S. has progressed a great deal in the development of BME education and training. Europe, which also has a large biotechnology sector and an impressive education system, has encountered trouble in creating uniform standards as the European community attempts to bring down some of the national barriers that exist. Recently, initiatives such as BIOMEDEA have sprung up to develop BME-related education and professional standards. Other countries, such as Australia, are recognizing and moving to correct deficiencies in their BME education. Also, as high technology endeavors are usually marks of developed nations, some areas of the world are prone to slower development in education, including in BME.

In Malaysia, University of Malaya was the first institution to offer biomedical engineering undergraduate program in Malaysia, having commenced intake in 1997 and was accredited by the Engineering Accreditation Council (EAC) of Malaysia. Other public universities which offer similar program are Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (2005) and Universiti Malaysia Perlis (2006).

Professional certification

{{see also|Professional engineer}} Engineers typically require a type of professional certification, such as satisfying certain education requirements and passing an examination to become a professional engineer. These certifications are usually nationally regulated and registered, but there are also cases of self-governing bodies, such as the Canadian Association of Professional Engineers. In many cases, carrying the title of "Professional Engineer" is legally protected.

As BME is an emerging field, professional certifications are not as standard and uniform as they are for other engineering fields. For example, the Fundamentals of Engineering exam in the U.S. does not include a biomedical engineering section, though it does cover biology. Biomedical engineers often simply possess a university degree as their qualification. However, some countries, such as Australia, do regulate biomedical engineers, however registration is typically only recommended and not required.

Founding figures

• Y. C. Fung - professor emeritus at the University of California, San Diego, considered by many to be the founder of modern Biomechanics
• Robert Langer - Institute Professor at MIT, runs the largest BME laboratory in the world, pioneer in drug delivery and tissue engineering
• Otto Schmitt (deceased) - biophysicist with significant contributions to BME, working with biomimetics
• Ascher Shapiro (deceased) - Institute Professor at MIT, contributed to the development of the BME field, medical devices (e.g. intra-aortic balloons)
• John G. Webster - a pioneer in the field of instrumentation amplifiers for the recording of electrophysiological signals
• U. A. Whitaker (deceased) - provider of The Whitaker Foundation, which supported research and education in BME by providing over $700 million to various universities, helping to create 30 BME programs and helping finance the construction of 13 buildings

See also

• List of biomedical engineering topics
• Bioengineering

Further reading

• Bronzino, Joseph D. (2000). The Biomedical Engineering Handbook - Second Edition. CRC Press.
  • Volume 1. ISBN 0-8493-0461-X.
  • Volume 2. ISBN 0-8493-0462-8.

External links

{{WVD}} Organizations

• American College of Clinical Engineering (ACCE)
• Association of Institutions concerned with Medical Engineering (UK)
• Biomed.org
• Biomedical engineering at the NIH
• Biomedical Engineering website
• Danish Society for Biomedical Engineering
• EBME - Biomedical and Clinical Engineering
• The Whitaker Foundation
• The Biomedical Engineering Network
• The Biomedical Engineering Society (US)
• The Canadian Medical and Biological Engineering Society
• Thai Biomedical Engineering Research Society (ThaiBME)
• The Turkey Biomedical Engineering (Turkey)
• the Arabic biomedical engineering source (arabic BME)
• Malaysian Society of Medical and Biological Engineering (MSMBE)

Job finders

• Biomedical Engineering Jobs
• Biomedical and Clinical Engineering Jobs

Other sites

• List of Biomedical Engineering Companies and Organizations at the Open Directory Project

{{Technology}}

[[Categorie:Biomedical engineering|*]] [[Categorie:Bioengineering]]